Light absorption and filtering properties of vertically oriented semiconductor nano wires

ABSTRACT

A nanowire array is described herein. The nanowire array comprises a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially vertically from the substrate; wherein: each of the nanowires has uniform chemical along its entire length; a refractive index of the nanowires is at least two times of a refractive index of a cladding of the nanowires. This nanowire array is useful as a photodetector, a submicron color filter, a static color display or a dynamic color display.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/910,664, filed Oct. 22, 2010, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/357,429, filed Jun. 22, 2010. This application is related to the disclosures of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/204,686, filed Sep. 4, 2008 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,646,943, issued Jan. 12, 2010), Ser. No. 12/648,942, filed Dec. 29, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,229,255, issued Jul. 24, 2012), Ser. No. 13/556,041, filed Jul. 23, 2012, Ser. No. 12/270,233, filed Nov. 13, 2008 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,274,039, issued Sep. 25, 2012), Ser. No. 13/925,429, filed Jun. 24, 2013, Ser. No. 13/570,027, filed Aug. 8, 2012 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,471,190, issued Jun. 25, 2013), Ser. No. 12/472,264, filed May 26, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,269,985, issued Sep. 18, 2012), Ser. No. 13/621,607, filed Sep. 17, 2012 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,514,411, issued Aug. 20, 2013), Ser. No. 13/971,523, filed Aug. 20, 2013 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,810,808, issued Aug. 19, 2014), Ser. No. 12/472,271, filed May 26, 2009 (now abandoned), Ser. No. 12/478,598, filed Jun. 4, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,546,742, issued Oct. 1, 2013), Ser. No. 14/021,672, filed Sep. 9, 2013, Ser. No. 12/573,582, filed Oct. 5, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,791,470, issued Jul. 29, 2014), Ser. No. 14/274,448, filed May 9, 2014, Ser. No. 12/575,221, filed Oct. 7, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,384,007, issued Feb. 26, 2013), Ser. No. 12/633,323, filed Dec. 8, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,735,797, issued May 27, 2014), Ser. No. 14/068,864, filed Oct. 31, 2013, Ser. No. 14/281,108, filed May 19, 2014, Ser. No. 13/494,661, filed Jun. 12, 2012 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,754,359, issued Jun. 17, 2014), Ser. No. 12/633,318, filed Dec. 8, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,519,379, issued Aug. 27, 2013), Ser. No. 13/975,553, filed Aug. 26, 2013 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,710,488, issued Apr. 29, 2014), Ser. No. 12/633,313, filed Dec. 8, 2009, Ser. No. 12/633,305, filed Dec. 8, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,299,472, issued Oct. 30, 2012), Ser. No. 13/543,556, filed Jul. 6, 2012 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,766,272, issued Jul. 1, 2014), Ser. No. 14/293,164, filed Jun. 2, 2014, Ser. No. 12/621,497, filed Nov. 19, 2009 (now abandoned), Ser. No. 12/633,297, filed Dec. 8, 2009 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,889,455, issued Nov. 18, 2014), Ser. No. 12/982,269, filed Dec. 30, 2010, Ser. No. 12/966,573, filed Dec. 13, 2010 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,866,065, issued Oct. 21, 2014), Ser. No. 12/967,880, filed Dec. 14, 2010 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,748,799, issued Jun. 10, 2014), Ser. No. 14/291,888, filed May 30, 2014 Ser. No. 12/966,514, filed Dec. 13, 2010, Ser. No. 12/974,499, filed Dec. 21, 2010 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,507,840, issued Aug. 13, 2013), Ser. No. 12/966,535, filed Dec. 13, 2010 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,890,271, issued Nov. 18, 2014), Ser. No. 12/910,664, filed Oct. 22, 2010, Ser. No. 12/945,492, filed Nov. 12, 2010, Ser. No. 13/047,392, filed Mar. 14, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,835,831, issued Sep. 16, 2014), Ser. No. 14/450,812, filed Aug. 4, 2014, Ser. No. 13/048,635, filed Mar. 15, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,835,905, issued Sep. 16, 2014), Ser. No. 13/106,851, filed May 12, 2011, Ser. No. 13/288,131, filed Nov. 3, 2011, Ser. No. 14/334,848, filed Jul. 18, 2014, Ser. No. 14/032,166, filed Sep. 19, 2013, Ser. No. 13/543,307, filed Jul. 6, 2012, Ser. No. 13/963,847, filed Aug. 9, 2013, Ser. No. 13/693,207, filed Dec. 4, 2012, 61/869,727, filed Aug. 25, 2013, Ser. No. 14/322,503, filed Jul. 2, 2014, and Ser. No. 14/311,954, filed Jun. 23, 2014, Ser. No. 14/459,398, filed Aug. 14, 2014, Ser. No. 14/487,375, filed Sep. 16, 2014, Ser. No. 14/501,983 filed Sep. 30, 2014, Ser. No. 14/503,598, filed Oct. 1, 2014, Ser. No. 14/516,162, filed Oct. 16, 2014, Ser. No. 14/563,781, filed Dec. 8, 2014 are each hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Nanostructures often exhibit fascinating physical properties not present in their bulk counterparts. Optical properties of nanostructures have been one of the recent research focuses. Tuning optical properties of nanostructures would facilitate their applications in the semiconductor, optics, and consumer electronics industry. In one example, optical properties of nanostructures can be controlled by their chemical composition. Chemical doping can change electronic structures of the materials semiconductor nanostructures are composed of, which in turn changes their interaction with light. In another example, arranging nanostructures into a regular lattice can yield optical properties individual nanostructures lack. However, these conventional approaches often require complex chemical synthesis or post-synthesis manipulation, and thus are less robust against minute variations of conditions and cannot easily and accurately position nanostructures in a functional device. In contrast, the approach described herein overcomes these problems of the conventional approaches by harnessing small physical sizes of nanostructures and a top-down fabrication process (i.e., part of a piece of bulk material is removed until desired nanostructures are achieved).

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Described herein is a nanowire array, comprising a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate; wherein: a refractive index of the nanowires is at least two times of a refractive index of a cladding of the nanowires. Preferably a number density of the nanowires is at most about 1.8/μm².

The nanowire array can be fabricated using a method comprising: (a) coating the substrate with a resist layer; (b) generating a pattern of dots in the resist layer using a lithography technique; (c) developing the pattern in the resist layer; (d) depositing a mask layer; (e) lifting off the resist layer; (f) forming the nanowires by dry etching the substrate; (g) optionally removing the mask player; wherein shapes and sizes of the dots determine the cross-sectional shapes and sizes of the nanowires.

The nanowire array can be used as a photodetector, a submicron color filter, a static color display or a dynamic color display.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A shows a perspective schematic of a nanowire array.

FIG. 1B shows a cross sectional schematic of the nanowire array of FIG. 1A.

FIGS. 2A-2D are SEM images of an exemplary nanowire array.

FIG. 3A shows measured reflectance spectra of nanowire arrays with nanowires of a series of different radii.

FIG. 3B shows simulated reflectance spectra of the nanowire arrays of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3C shows dip positions in measured and simulated reflectance spectra of nanowire arrays, as functions of the radii of the nanowires thereon.

FIG. 4A-4C show a major transverse component of the H_(1,1) mode at different wavelengths, near a nanowire in an nanowire array.

FIG. 4D shows a schematic illustration of possible pathways of white light normally incident on the nanowire array.

FIG. 5A shows simulated effective refractive indexes (n_(eff)) of the H_(1,1) modes, as a function of wavelength, of three nanowire arrays with different nanowire radii.

FIG. 5B shows simulated absorption spectra of the nanowire arrays of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5C compares a simulated absorption spectrum of the substrate in a nanowire array, a simulated absorption spectrum of the nanowires (of 45 nm radius) in the nanowire array, and a simulated reflectance spectrum of the entire nanowire array.

FIG. 6 shows a schematic top view of four pixels of the dynamic color display comprising a nanowire array according to an embodiment.

FIGS. 7A and 7B show schematics of two exemplary apparatuses for measuring reflectance spectra of the nanowire array.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Described herein is a nanowire array, according to an embodiment, comprising a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate; wherein a refractive index of the nanowires is at least two times of a refractive index of a cladding of the nanowires. A number density of the nanowires preferably is at most about 1.8/μm².

According to an embodiment, a nanowire array comprises a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate; wherein the nanowire array is operable as a submicron color filter. A “submicron color filter” as used herein means that an optical filter that allows light of certain wavelengths to pass through and optical elements in the filter are less than a micron at least in one dimension.

According an embodiment, a nanowire array comprises a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate; wherein the nanowires do not substantially couple. The term “substantially couple” as used herein means the nanowires collectively interact with incident light such that spectral properties (e.g., reflectance spectrum) of the nanowire array are distinct from spectral properties of individual nanowire in the nanowire array. The term “the nanowires do not substantially couple” as used herein means one nanowire does not affect the properties of a neighboring nanowire. For example, when the pitch of the nanowires is changed and there is no color change of the light absorbed or reflected by the nanowire, then the nanowires do not substantially couple.

According an embodiment, a nanowire array comprises a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate; the nanowire array does not appear black to naked eye. The term “naked eye” as used herein means human visual perception that is unaided by enhancing equipment. The term “the nanowire array does not appear black to naked eye” as used herein means that the reflected visible light from the nanowire is substantially zero, which could happen under certain conditions based on the nanowire length, radius and pitch, as well as the optical properties of the substrate.

According to an embodiment, a nanowire as used herein means a structure that has a size constrained to at most 1000 nm in two dimensions and unconstrained in the other dimension. An array as used herein means a systematic arrangement of objects such as a grid. The term “nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate” as used herein means that angles between the nanowires and the substrate are from 85° to 90°. Cladding as used herein means a substance surrounding the nanowires, which can be vacuum, air, water, etc. A refractive index of the nanowires as used herein means a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum relative to that in the nanowires. A number density of the nanowires as used herein means that an average number of nanowires per unit area of the substrate.

According to an embodiment, each of the nanowires in the nanowire array has an essentially uniform chemical composition from one end of the nanowire to an opposite end of the nanowire in a longitudinal direction of the nanowire.

According to an embodiment, chemical composition of the nanowires as used herein means the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in the nanowires. The term “essentially uniform chemical composition” as used herein means that the ratio of atoms varies at most 3%, preferably at most 1%. A longitudinal direction of the nanowire as used herein means a direction pointing from one end of the nanowire farthest from the substrate to one end of the nanowire nearest to the substrate.

According to an embodiment, each of the nanowires in the nanowire array is single crystalline, multi-crystalline or amorphous. That the nanowire is single crystalline as used herein means that the crystal lattice of the entire nanowire is continuous and unbroken throughout the entire nanowire, with no grain boundaries therein. That the nanowire is multi-crystalline as used herein means that the nanowire comprises grains of crystals separated by grain boundaries. That the nanowire is amorphous as used herein means that the nanowire has a disordered atomic structure.

According to an embodiment, the nanowires in the nanowire array are composed of a semiconductor or an electrically insulating material. A conductor can be a material with essentially zero band gap. The electrical conductivity of a conductor is generally above 10³ S/cm. A semiconductor can be a material with a finite band gap upto about 3 eV and general has an electrical conductivity in the range of 10³ to 10⁻⁸ S/cm. An electrically insulating material can be a material with a band gap greater than about 3 eV and generally has an electrical conductivity below 10⁻⁸ S/cm.

According to an embodiment, the nanowires in the nanowire array, comprise one or more materials selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, GaN, GaAs, SiO₂, and Si₃N₄.

According to an embodiment, radii of the nanowires in the nanowire array are from 10 to 1000 nm; lengths of the nanowires are from 0.01 to 10 μm.

According to an embodiment, the nanowires and the substrate in the nanowire array have substantially the same chemical composition. The term “same chemical composition” as used herein means that the substrate and the nanowires are identical materials. The term “substantially same” here means the chemical composition differs by no more than 3%, preferably by no more than 1%.

According to an embodiment, the nanowires and the substrate in the nanowire array are single crystalline and the lattices of the nanowires and the lattice of the substrate are continuous at interfaces therebetween. Namely, there is no grain boundary at the interfaces between the nanowires and the substrate.

According to an embodiment, the nanowires in the nanowire array are arranged in a predetermined pattern such as a rectangular grid, a square grid, concentric circle, hexagonal grid.

According to an embodiment, a distance of a nanowire to a nearest neighbor of the nanowire along a direction parallel to the substrate (also known as “pitch” or “pitch distance”) is at least 800 nm, preferably at most 10000 nm.

According to an embodiment, a reflectance spectrum of the nanowire array has a dip; the dip position shifts to shorter wavelength with decreasing radii of the nanowires; and the dip position is independent from a distance of a nanowire to a nearest neighbor of the nanowire along a direction parallel to the substrate. A reflectance spectrum as used herein means a ratio of the intensity of reflected light at a certain wavelength to the intensity of incident light at the same wavelength, as a function of wavelength. A “dip” in a reflectance spectrum as used herein means that a region in the reflectance spectrum wherein the reflectance is smaller than the reflectance in surrounding regions of the reflectance spectrum. The “dip position” as used herein means the wavelength in the dip at which the reflectance is a minimum.

According to an embodiment, a reflectance spectrum of the nanowire array is independent from incident angles of illumination.

According to an embodiment, an incident angle as used herein means the angle between a ray of light incident on the substrate and the line perpendicular to the substrate at the point of incidence.

According to an embodiment, a method of fabricating the nanowire array comprises: (a) coating the substrate with a resist layer; (b) generating a pattern of dots in the resist layer using a lithography technique; (c) developing the pattern in the resist layer; (d) depositing a mask layer; (e) lifting off the resist layer; (f) forming the nanowires by dry etching the substrate; (g) optionally removing the mask player; wherein shapes and sizes of the dots determine the cross-sectional shapes and sizes of the nanowires.

According to an embodiment, a resist layer as used herein means a thin layer used to transfer a pattern to the substrate which the resist layer is deposited upon. A resist layer can be patterned via lithography to form a (sub)micrometer-scale, temporary mask that protects selected areas of the underlying substrate during subsequent processing steps. The resist is generally proprietary mixtures of a polymer or its precursor and other small molecules (e.g. photoacid generators) that have been specially formulated for a given lithography technology. Resists used during photolithography are called photoresists. Resists used during e-beam lithography are called e-beam resists. “Dots” as used herein means discrete regions. A lithography technique can be photolithography, e-beam lithography, holographic lithography. Photolithography is a process used in microfabrication to selectively remove parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photo mask to a light-sensitive chemical photo resist, or simply “resist,” on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the exposure pattern into the material underneath the photo resist. In complex integrated circuits, for example a modern CMOS, a wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times. E-beam lithography is the practice of scanning a beam of electrons in a patterned fashion across a surface covered with a film (called the resist), (“exposing” the resist) and of selectively removing either exposed or non-exposed regions of the resist (“developing”). The purpose, as with photolithography, is to create very small structures in the resist that can subsequently be transferred to the substrate material, often by etching. It was developed for manufacturing integrated circuits, and is also used for creating nanotechnology artifacts. Holographic lithography (also known as Interference lithography) is a technique for patterning regular arrays of fine features, without the use of complex optical systems or photomasks. The basic principle is the same as in interferometry or holography. An interference pattern between two or more coherent light waves is set up and recorded in a recording layer (photoresist). This interference pattern consists of a periodic series of fringes representing intensity minima and maxima. Upon post-exposure photolithographic processing, a photoresist pattern corresponding to the periodic intensity pattern emerges. A mask layer as used herein means a layer that protects an underlying portion of the substrate from being etched. “Dry etching” as used herein means an etching technique without using a liquid etchant.

According to an embodiment, a method using the nanowire array 1 as a photodetector comprises: shining light on the nanowire array; measuring photocurrent on the nanowires; measuring photocurrent on the substrate; comparing the photocurrent on the nanowires to the photocurrent on the substrate. A photodetector as used herein means a sensor of light.

According to an embodiment, a method using the nanowire array as a static color display comprises: determining locations and radii of the nanowires from an image to be displayed; fabricating the nanowires with the determined radii at the determined locations on the substrate; shining white light on the nanowire array.

According to an embodiment, a dynamic color display comprises the nanowire array, an array of independently addressable white light sources on a side of the substrate opposite the nanowires, wherein each white light source corresponds to and is aligned in the substrate plane with one of the nanowires. “Independently addressable white light sources” as used herein mean that each source can be controlled, adjusted, turned on or off, independently from other sources. “White light” as used herein means a combination of visible light of different wavelengths in equal proportions.

According to an embodiment, the white light sources in the dynamic color display are white LEDs. LEDs are also known as light-emitting diodes. There are two primary ways of producing whitelight using LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors—red, green, and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works.

According to an embodiment, in the dynamic color display, a first group of the nanowires have a first radius, a second group of the nanowires have a second radius, and a third group of the nanowires have a third radius, wherein the first group of the nanowires only allow red light to pass, the second group of the nanowires only allow green light to pass, and the third group of the nanowires only allow blue light to pass.

According to an embodiment, a submicron color filter comprising the nanowire array, wherein each nanowire is placed on a photodetector, wherein only incident light with wavelengths in a dip of a reflectance spectrum of each nanowire is allowed reach the photodetector below. A method using the submicron color filter comprises shining white light on the nanowire array, detecting transmitted light below the nanowires.

According to an embodiment, a ratio of a radius of the nanowires to a pitch of the nanowires is at most 0.5.

Examples

FIGS. 1A and 1B show schematics of a nanowire array 100, according to an embodiment. The nanowire array 100 comprises a substrate 110 and a plurality of nanowires 120 extending essentially vertically from the substrate 110 (e.g. angles between the nanowires 120 and the substrate 110 are from 85° to 90°). Each nanowire 120 preferably has uniform chemical composition along its entire length. Each nanowire 120 is single crystalline, multi-crystalline or amorphous. The nanowires 120 preferably are made of a suitable semiconductor or an electrically insulating materials, examples of which include Si, Ge, GaN, GaAs, SiO2, Si₃N₄, etc. A ratio of the refractive index (i.e., refractive index contrast) of the nanowires 120 and the refractive index of a cladding 130 (i.e., materials surround the nanowires 120) is preferably at least 2, more preferably at least 3. Radii of the nanowires 120 preferably are from 10 to 1000 nm, more preferably from 20 to 80 nm, most preferably from 45 to 75 nm. Lengths of the nanowires 120 are preferably from 0.01 to 10 μm, more preferably 0.1 to 5 μm. The nanowires 120 and the substrate 110 preferably have substantially the same chemical composition. Crystal lattices of the nanowires 120 and the substrate 110, if both are single crystalline, are preferably continuous at interfaces therebetween. The nanowires 120 can have the same or different shape and size. The nanowires 120 can be arranged in any suitable pattern, examples of which include a rectangular grid, a square grid, a hexagonal grid, concentric rings, etc. A distance between a nanowire 120 of the nanowire array 100 to a nearest neighbor nanowire of the nanowire array 100 along a direction parallel to the substrate is also known as “pitch” or “pitch distance”. A ratio of the radius of the nanowires 120 to the pitch should not be too high, i.e., preferably at most 0.5, more preferably at most 0.1. If this ratio is too high, the nanowires 120 substantially couple to each other (i.e., the nanowires 120 collectively interact with incident light such that spectral properties (e.g., reflectance spectrum) of the nanowire array 100 are distinct from spectral properties of individual nanowire 120 in the nanowire array 100) and the nanowire array 100 appears black to naked eyes and cannot function as color filters or displays. Preferably, the number density of the nanowires 120 (average number of nanowires 120 per unit area on the substrate 110) is thus at most about 1.8/μm². Preferably, the pitch of the nanowires 120 is at least 500 nm.

FIGS. 2A-2D show exemplary scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanowire array 100. In these exemplary SEM images, 10,000 nanowires 120 consisting of silicon are arranged in a 100 μm×100 μm square grid on the substrate 110 consisting of silicon, wherein a distance of one nanowire to a nearest neighbor nanowire of the nanowire array 100 along a direction parallel to the substrate is about 1 μm. The length of the nanowires 120 are about 1 μm. The radius of the nanowires 120 is about 45 nm.

FIG. 3A shows measured reflectance spectra of five nanowire arrays 100, each of which consists 10,000 nanowires 120 consisting of silicon arranged in a 100 μm×100 μm square grid on the substrate 110 consisting of silicon, wherein the pitch of these nanowire arrays 100 and the length of the nanowires 120 are about 1 μm. These five nanowire arrays 100 are identical except that the nanowires 120 thereof have uniform radii of 45 nm, 50 nm, 55 nm, 60 nm, 65 nm and 70 nm, respectively. Under white light illumination, these nanowire arrays 100 appear to be different colors (e.g., red, green, blue, cyan, etc.) to naked eyes. The reflectance spectrum of each of these nanowire arrays 100 shows one dip, i.e., incident light at wavelengths within the dip is reflected at a lesser proportion compared to incident light at wavelengths outside the dip. Positions of the dip dictates the apparent colors of the nanowire arrays 100. For example, if the position of the dip is between 700 and 635 nm, the nanowire array 100 appears cyan; if the position of the dip is between 560 and 490 nm, the nanowire array 100 appears magenta; if the position of the dip is between 490 and 450 nm, the nanowire 100 appears yellow. Position of the dip progressively shifts to shorter wavelength from about 770 nm in the nanowire array 100 with the largest nanowires 120 (70 nm in radius) to about 550 nm in the nanowire array 100 with the smallest nanowires 120 (45 nm in radius). The positions of the dips in these five nanowire arrays 100 range across the entire visible spectrum. The position of the dip is independent from the pitch of the nanowire array 100, which indicates that the dips are not due to diffractive or coupling effects. Although diffractive and coupling effects are not required, the nanowire array 100 can function when such effects are present. The nanowire array 100 preferably has a pitch greater than 800 nm so that diffractive and coupling effects do not dominate. The magnitude of the dips decreases with increasing pitches because greater pitch leads to lower number density of the nanowires 120. FIG. 3A also illustrates that magnitudes of the dips increase with the positions of the dips in wavelength, due to strong material dispersion of the substrate material above its bandgap (i.e., the refractive index of the substrate 110 increases at wavelengths above the bandgap of the material thereof while the effective refractive index of a guided mode in the nanowires 120 remains close to the refractive index of air, which leads to higher refractive index contrast between the guided mode and the substrate 110 and thus stronger reflectance in the dip, i.e., smaller magnitude of the dip, at shorter wavelengths). For a nanowire array with thicker nanowires, more than one dip may be present in its reflectance spectrum and the nanowire array may appear in a combination of colors.

The reflectance spectra can be measured with focused or collimated incident illumination. In an exemplary measurement as shown in FIG. 7A, incident white light from a light source 810 is focused by 20× objective lens 830 (numerical aperture=0.5); reflected light is collected by the same objective lens 830 and partially reflected by a beam splitter 820 to a spectrometer 850. An iris 840 is used at the image plane of the objective lens 830 to reject any light other than light reflected by the nanowire array 100. In another exemplary measurement as shown in FIG. 7B, incident white light from a light source 815 is collimated by a lens 835 and directed to the nanowire array 100 through a beam splitter 825; reflected light is collected by a 10× objective lens 865 to a spectrometer 855. An iris 845 is used at the image plane of the objective lens 865 to reject any light other than light reflected by the nanowire array 100. A silver mirror can used to measure absolute intensity of reflected light, which is used to calculate (i.e., normalize) the reflectance spectra. The reflectance spectra are found to be essentially independent from the incident angle, which indicates that the reflectance spectra are dominated by coupling dynamics between normal component of the incident light and the nanowire array 100.

FIG. 3B shows simulated reflectance spectra of the five nanowire arrays 100 in FIG. 3A using the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method. The FDTD method is a method of numerically simulating propagation of light in a structure and can be used to predict detailed characteristics of the propagation. The simulated reflectance spectra are quantitatively in good agreement with the measured reflectance spectra of FIG. 3A, with respect to the dip position as a function of nanowire radius. Compared to the measured reflectance spectra, simulated spectra have shallower dips, which could be due to a reflectivity difference between roughened substrate surface in actual nanowire arrays and ideally flat substrate surface presumed in the simulation. Lumerical's (Lumerical Solutions, Inc.) FDTD and MODE solvers were used to perform the simulation. Two dimensional models were constructed in MODE solver by simply specifying nanowire radius, pitch and material properties. A periodic boundary condition is then imposed in the substrate plane. These modes were used to study the evolution of the fundamental mode of the nanowires 120 as a function of wavelength. Full three dimensional models were constructed in Lumerical's FDTD solver by specifying complete nanowire geometry along with pitch and material properties. Periodic boundary conditions in the substrate plane and absorbing boundary conditions along the z axis (normal direction of the substrate 110) were imposed. A plane wave pulse source of the appropriate bandwidth was launched along the z axis and monitors placed to compute the total absorbed, transmitted and reflected fluxes as a function of wavelength. The nanowires 120 and the substrate 110 were assumed to be silicon in the simulation.

FIG. 3C shows the positions of the dips as a function of radii of the nanowires 120 in both of the measured and simulated reflectance spectra, which shows an essentially linear dependence on the nanowire radii. The essentially linear dependence indicates a strong correlation or agreement between the measured and simulated reflectance spectra.

Wavelength selective reflection of the nanowire array 100 as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B originates from strong wavelength dependence of field distribution of the fundamental guided mode (HE_(1,1) mode) of each nanowire 120. The fundamental guided mode as used herein means the guided mode with the lowest frequency. The guided mode of a nanowire 120 as used herein means a mode whose field decays monotonically in the transverse direction (directions parallel to the substrate 110) everywhere external to the nanowire 120 and which does not lose power to radiation. Symmetry prevents efficient interaction between the nanowire 120 and other guided mode, and the nanowire 120 is too small to support higher order HE_(1,m) modes (guided modes with higher frequency). FIGS. 4A-4C show a major transverse component (e.g. E_(y)) (a field component perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the mode) of the H_(1,1) mode at different wavelengths. At wavelengths in the dip of the reflectance spectrum, the field distribution of the HE_(1,1) mode of each nanowire 120 is characterized by a transverse field that is partially contained in the nanowire 120 and partially extends into the cladding 130, as shown in FIG. 4A. Incident light at these wavelengths can efficiently excite the HE_(1,1) mode and be guided by the nanowire 120 to the substrate 110 or be absorbed by the nanowire 120. The large refractive index contrast between the nanowire 120 and the cladding leads to non-negligible longitudinal field component (E_(z)) (i.e., field component parallel to the direction of propagation of the mode) which has significant overlap with the nanowire 120; since the modal absorption is proportional to the spatial density of electromagnetic energy, which includes E_(z), incident light at these wavelengths can both efficiently couple to (i.e., a significant portion of the incident light propagates inside the nanowire 120) and be absorbed by the nanowire 120. At wavelengths well below the dip of the reflectance spectrum, the field distribution of the HE_(1,1) mode of each nanowire 120 is characterized by a transverse field essentially confined in the nanowire 120 due to large refractive index contrast between the nanowire 120 and the cladding, as shown in FIG. 4B. Incident light at these wavelengths cannot efficiently excite the HE_(1,1) mode and thus cannot be efficiently guided or absorbed by the nanowire 120; incident light at these wavelengths is substantially reflected by an interface of the substrate 110 and the cladding 130. At wavelengths well above the dip of the reflectance spectrum, the field distribution of the HE_(1,1) mode of each nanowire 120 is characterized by a transverse field essentially expelled from the nanowire 120, as shown in FIG. 4C. Incident light at these wavelengths can efficiently excite the HE_(1,1) mode but the HE_(1,1) mode at these wavelengths cannot be efficiently guided or absorbed by the nanowire 120; incident light at these wavelengths is substantially reflected by an interface of the substrate 110 and the cladding. FIG. 4D shows schematic illustration of possible pathways of white light normally incident on the nanowire array 100. Light of wavelengths beyond the dip in the reflectance spectrum is reflected by the substrate 110; light of wavelengths in the dip is guided by the nanowire 120 to transmitted through the substrate 110 or absorbed by the nanowire 120.

The position of the dip of the reflectance spectrum is determined by the radius of the nanowire 120. FIG. 5A shows simulated effective refractive indexes (n_(eff)) of the H_(1,1) modes, as a function of wavelength, of three nanowire arrays 100 with different nanowire radii (45 nm, 55 nm and 70 nm in traces 501, 502 and 503, respectively), wherein n_(eff) are obtained by the FDTD method over a 1 μm by 1 μm unit cell under periodic boundary conditions, the material of the nanowire arrays 100 is assumed to be silicon, the cladding is assumed to be air, and length of the nanowires 120 is assumed to be 1 μm. When light propagates in a medium that comprises materials of different indices of refraction, the light behaves as if it propagates in a uniform medium with a uniform index of refraction whose value is some intermediate of those of the materials. This uniform index is referred to as the effective refractive index. A periodic boundary condition is a set of boundary conditions that are often used to model a large system as an infinite periodic tile of a small unit cell.

In each trace, n_(eff) increases sharply and approaches n_(Si) (refractive index of silicon) for wavelengths shorter than the corresponding dip position in FIG. 3A. The dip occurs where n_(eff) asymptotes to n_(air) (refractive index of air). n_(eff) as a function of wavelength (also called a dispersion curve) shifts to longer wavelength with increasing nanowire radius.

FIG. 5B shows simulated absorption spectra (obtained by the FDTD method) of the nanowire arrays 100 of FIG. 5A (traces 511, 512 and 513 corresponding to nanowire arrays with nanowires of 45 nm, 55 nm and 70 nm radii, respectively). For blue light (<500 nm) over 90% of the H_(1,1) mode can be absorbed in a 1 μm length of the nanowire. FIG. 5C compares a simulated absorption spectrum 521 of the substrate 110 in the nanowire array 100 with nanowires 120 of 45 nm radius (corresponding to traces 501 and 511), a simulated absorption spectrum 523 of the nanowires 120 of 45 nm radius in this nanowire array 100, and a simulated reflectance spectrum 522 of this nanowire array 100. The dip in the reflectance spectrum 522 is slightly redshifted relative to the peak in the absorption spectrum 523 of the nanowires 120, which indicates that the long wavelength edge of the dip arises more from coupling to the substrate 110. Nonetheless, this shows that the guided light is in fact absorbed in the nanowires 120, and so the shape of the reflectance spectrum 523 and the amount of light absorbed in the nanowires 120 can be controlled by altering the length thereof. The light absorbed by the substrate 110 (see trace 521) can be enhanced or diminished by the nanowires 120 relative to light absorption of a planar substrate, depending on whether the nanowires 120 absorb or merely couple to the substrate 110. The fact that the filtering characteristics of the nanowire array 100 are related to absorption in different parts thereof can lead to useful applications in optoelectronic devices.

A method of fabricating the nanowire array 100 includes (a) coating the substrate 110 with a resist layer (e.g. e-beam resist, photo resist, etc.); (b) generating a pattern of dots in the resist layer using a lithography technique (e.g. photolithography, e-beam lithography, holographic lithography, etc.); (c) developing the pattern in the resist layer; (d) depositing a mask layer (e.g. Al, Cr, SiO₂, Si₃N₄, Au, Ag, etc.); (e) lifting off the resist layer; (f) forming the nanowires 120 by dry etching the substrate 110; (g) optionally removing the mask player; wherein shapes and sizes of the dots determine the cross-sectional shapes and sizes of the nanowires 120. The resist can be poly(methyl methacrylate) (available from MicroChem located in Newton, Mass.). The mask layer can be aluminum deposited by a suitable technique such as e-beam evaporation, thermal evaporation, sputtering, etc. The mask layer can be about 40 nm thick. The substrate 110 can be a single crystalline silicon wafer. Dry etching can be conducted in an inductively coupled plasma-reactive ion etcher (such as those available from Surface Technology Systems, located at Redwood City, Calif.). An exemplary dry etching process includes alternating etch and deposition steps at room temperature, wherein 60 sccm of SF₆ and 160 sccm of C₄F₈ gases were used therein, respectively. The mask layer can be removed using a suitable etchant (e.g. Type A aluminum etchant available from Transene Company Inc. located in Danvers, Mass.) or solvent (e.g. acid, base, or organic solvent). SEM images can be taken in an SEM such as Zeiss Ultra55 available from Carl Zeiss NTS located at Peabody, Mass.

A method using the nanowire array 100 as a photodetector comprises: shining light on the nanowire array 100; measuring photocurrent on the nanowires 120; measuring photocurrent on the substrate 110; comparing the photocurrent on the nanowires 120 to the photocurrent on the substrate 110.

The nanowire array 100 can also be used as a submicron color filter. For example, each of the nanowires 120 in the nanowire array 100 can be placed on a photodetector. Only incident light with wavelengths in the dip of the reflectance spectrum of a nanowire can reach the photodetector below this nanowire. A method using the nanowire array 100 as a submicron color filter comprises shining white light on the nanowire array 100, detecting transmitted light below the nanowires 120.

A method using the nanowire array 100 as a static color display comprises: determining locations and radii of nanowires from an image to be displayed; fabricating the nanowires with the determined radii at the determined locations on the substrate; shining white light on the nanowire array. The word “static” here means that the display can only show one fixed image. By appropriate choice of individual nanowire placement and radius in the nanowire array 100, the nanowire array 100 can display a color image under white light illumination.

The nanowire array can also be used in a dynamic color display. The word “dynamic” here means that the display can display different images at different times. The dynamic color display, according to one embodiment, comprises the nanowire array 100, an array of independently addressable white light sources on a side of the substrate 110 opposite the nanowires 120, wherein each white light source corresponds to and is aligned in the substrate plane with one of the nanowires 120. The nanowires 120 can have predetermined radii and thus only allow light of desired wavelengths from the light sources to pass. For example, FIG. 6 shows a schematic top view of four pixels of the dynamic color display. Nanowires 715, 725, 735 and 745 respectively correspond to and are aligned with white light sources 710, 720, 730 and 740. The white light sources can be white LEDs. The nanowire 715 has a radius of about 45 nm and only allows red light to pass. The nanowires 725 and 735 have a radius of about 60 nm and only allows green light to pass. The nanowire 745 has a radius of about 70 nm and only allows blue light to pass. The independently addressable white light sources can be replaced by a scanning white light beam.

While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A nanowire array, comprising a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate, wherein a ratio of a radius of the nanowires to a pitch of the nanowires is at most 0.5.
 2. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires do not substantially couple.
 3. A nanowire array of claim 1; wherein: a refractive index of the nanowires is at least two times of a refractive index of a cladding of the nanowires.
 4. A nanowire array of claim 1, wherein a number density of the nanowires is at most about 1.8/μm2.
 5. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein each of the nanowires is single crystalline, multi-crystalline or amorphous.
 6. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires are composed of a semiconductor.
 7. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires comprise one or more materials selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, GaN, GaAs, SiO2, and Si3N4.
 8. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein radii of the nanowires are from 10 to 1000 nm; lengths of the nanowires are from 0.01 to 10 μm.
 9. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires and the substrate have substantially the same chemical composition.
 10. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires and the substrate are single crystalline and the lattices of the nanowires and the lattice of the substrate are continuous at interfaces therebetween.
 11. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires are arranged in a predetermined pattern.
 12. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein a distance of a nanowire to a nearest neighbor of the nanowire along a direction parallel to the substrate is at least 800 nm.
 13. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein a reflectance spectrum thereof has a dip; the dip position shifts to shorter wavelength with decreasing radii of the nanowires; and the dip position is independent from a distance of a nanowire to a nearest neighbor of the nanowire along a direction parallel to the substrate.
 14. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein a reflectance spectrum thereof is independent from incident angles of illumination.
 15. A method of fabricating the nanowire array of claim 1, comprising: generating a pattern of dots in a resist layer using a lithography technique; forming the nanowires by etching the substrate; wherein shapes and sizes of the dots determine the cross-sectional shapes and sizes of the nanowires.
 16. The method of claim 15, further comprising: coating the substrate with the resist layer; developing the pattern in the resist layer; depositing a mask layer; lifting off the resist layer; and optionally removing the mask player.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the etching is dry etching.
 18. A method using the nanowire array of claim 1 as a photodetector comprises: shining light on the nanowire array; measuring photocurrent on the nanowires; measuring photocurrent on the substrate; comparing the photocurrent on the nanowires to the photocurrent on the substrate.
 19. A method using the nanowire array of claim 1 as a static color display comprises: determining locations and radii of the nanowires from an image to be displayed; fabricating the nanowires with the determined radii at the determined locations on the substrate; shining white light on the nanowire array.
 20. A dynamic color display comprises a nanowire array comprising a substrate and a plurality of nanowires extending essentially perpendicularly from the substrate, the nanowire array being operable as a color filter; an array of independently addressable white light sources on a side of the substrate opposite the nanowires, wherein each white light source corresponds to and is aligned in the substrate plane with one of the nanowires.
 21. The dynamic color display of claim 20, wherein the white light sources are white LEDs or a scanning white light beam.
 22. The dynamic color display of claim 20, wherein a first group of the nanowires have a first radius, a second group of the nanowires have a second radius, and a third group of the nanowires have a third radius, wherein the first group of the nanowires only allow red light to pass, the second group of the nanowires only allow green light to pass, and the third group of the nanowires only allow blue light to pass.
 23. A color filter comprising the nanowire array of claim 1, wherein each nanowire is placed on a photodetector, wherein only incident light with wavelengths in a dip of a reflectance spectrum of each nanowire is allowed reach the photodetector below.
 24. A method using the color filter of claim 23 comprises shining white light on the nanowire array, detecting transmitted light below the nanowires.
 25. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowires are composed of an electrically insulating material.
 26. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein the nanowire array is operable as a submicron color filter.
 27. The nanowire array of claim 1, wherein at least one nanowire among the plurality of nanowires has a dip in a reflectance spectrum of the at least one nanowire, wherein a light of a wavelength in the dip incident on the at least one nanowire is guided by the at least one nanowire to be transmitted through the substrate.
 28. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the dip is at an IR wavelength.
 29. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the nanowire array is operable as an infrared light filter.
 30. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the at least one nanowire comprises GaAs.
 31. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the at least one nanowire has a diameter of between about 70 nm and about 500 nm.
 32. A dynamic display comprises the nanowire array of claim
 27. 33. A photodetector comprising the nanowire array of claim
 27. 34. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the nanowire array is operable as a light filter.
 35. The nanowire array of claim 27, wherein the nanowires do not substantially couple. 